Part 1 - Ancient Greece & Rome

That ancient Roman architecture grew out of the influence of Greek and Etruscan styles is an indication of the closeness of interaction between cultures in the Mediterranean region and how civilizations adopted and evolved from each others influence. The Roman architectural style can be traced to Greek and Etruscan styles, the roots of these forming the basis of a style that would be adapted to reflect the aspirations and self awareness of the emerging Roman consciousness.

The Dorians and Ionians developed the architecture of classical Greece, hence the Doric and Ionic orders, which are systems of columnar design which formed the most striking feature of that architecture, and were mainly used to create an impressive exterior effect. It was the most important element in the temple architecture of the Greeks, and an almost indispensable adornment of their gateways, public squares, and temple enclosures. Each of the two types had its own special shaft, capital, entablature, mouldings, and ornaments, although considerable variation was allowed in the proportions and minor details. The general type, however, remained substantially unchanged from first to last.

There are three Greek orders in classical architecture, Doric, Ionian, and Corinthian, and two Latin orders, Tuscan and Composite, although the Romans also used the Greek orders with detail changes. The first and simplest of the three Greek orders, the Doric, has a plain bell-shaped capital, and was intended by the ancient Greeks to convey masculine form and dignity, basing its proportion on the average mans foot compared to his height. The Ionic order is characterized by the two large volutes of the capital, and compared to the ruder, masculine Doric, the order was seen as feminine, depicting a mature woman in its design and proportions. The third of the Grecian orders, the Corinthian, is recognized by a bell shaped capital adorned with rows of acanthus leaves transforming into helices and volutes. Compared to the other Greek orders , the Corinthian is a riot of decoration, and reflected the Corinthians, who were wealthy and liked to flaunt their wealth through their surroundings.

The Tuscan order is the simplest and most basic of the five orders, and is similar to Doric but without decoration. This style was developed by the Etruscans, who lived in what is now Tuscany, and in an ancient example of ethnic cleansing the Etruscan civilization was obliterated by the Romans, together with its language, with only Etruscan architecture and their engineering achievements such as the invention of the arch, being adopted by the Romans. It is characterized by its simplicity in comparison with the other orders, leading Ruskin to complain that “Tuscan….is no order at all, but a spoiled Doric.”

The Composite order was a mixture of Ionian and Corinthian, which literally means to put together. Vitruvius did not recognize the Composite order, but Sebastiano Serlio diffidently proposed its inclusion in 1537 as “almost a fifth style, a mixture of the said ‘pure’ ones,” and it has since been universally accepted. Serlio argued that since the Greek columns had represented men (Doric), women (Ionic), and virgins (Corinthian), and since Rome had triumphed over the rest of the known world, it could rightly create its own order as a combination of the classic orders.

The Greek employed strict rules regarding the way their buildings were to be constructed, and allowed only minor variations of the orders to be used in any construction. The main philosophy behind Greek architecture dealt with reflecting the honesty or trueness of forms, as are displayed in life and the natural world. This is evidenced clearly by the Greeks refusal to deviate from traditional forms in construction even when using new construction methods with different materials. The triglyph and metope which were carved into marble or stone construction were intended to imitate the rafter ends and spacings of wooden beams of earlier wooden construction techniques. Rather than developing a different style they chose to repeat the visual representation of traditional buildings in their “true” form. The ancient Greeks placed great importance on building temples to their gods, and endeavoured to bring a sense of humanity and art to their architectural forms.

The Romans were more concerned with developing new technological and engineering techniques rather than creating buildings for any philosophical or solely artistic reasons. By invading and conquering different territories they literally took from other cultures their greatest achievements and adapted them for their own use for the benefit and glory of advancing the Roman empire. Although the Romans, like the Greeks built temples to their gods, the Romans were far more interested in building amphitheatres, aqueducts, bathhouses, and were generally more secular in their mindset. Building impressive monuments, basilicas, palaces, and feats of engineering that would pay homage to the greatness of Rome and its emperor was far more important to the Romans than fawning to the metaphysical or the divine.

Dwellings were constructed in Roman cities and towns to suit the occupation of the owner, to reflect their social status, and to facilitate their trade. The Roman architect and engineer Vitruvius makes this intention clear when he states that the buildings will be “arranged with convenience and perfection to suit every purpose”. He further states that:

“ For capitalists and farmers of the revenue, somewhat comfortable and showy apartments must be constructed, secure against robbery; for advocates and public speakers, handsomer and more roomy, to accommodate meetings; for men of rank who, from holding offices and magistracies, have social obligations to their fellow-citizens, lofty entrance courts in regal style, and most spacious atriums and peristyles, with plantations and walks of some extent in them, appropriate to their dignity. They need also libraries, picture galleries, and basilicas, finished in a style similar to that of great public buildings, since public councils as well as private law suits and hearings before arbitrators are very often held in the houses of such men.”

The dichotomy of the social structure between the privileged patricians and the ordinary plebeian is also evident when he states that “men of everyday fortune do not need entrance courts, tablina, or atriums built in grand style, because such men are more apt to discharge their social obligations by going round to others than to have others come to them.” This method of planning considered that nothing other than basic living spaces were suited for the ordinary population, and this thinking led to the development of apartment-like complexes known as insulae. These were often two or three roomed units in buildings several stories high, with shops and stores located on the ground floor, and were for the most part overcrowded, squalid, noisy, and expensive. These dwellings did not have running water, sanitation, or heating, and had little in the way of furniture or the other basic living requirements enjoyed by the wealthier classes. Furniture other than anything of the most basic was not usual among these people, and made do with straw heaps placed on the floor that were used for bedding. 

These heavily populated accommodation areas created a hectic mix of domestic and commercial activity in clusters of buildings surrounding a central open square. Larger market squares were centres of government and ceremonial activity, and were surrounded on all sides by public and commercial buildings. Roughly one third of the Roman population were slaves, and unsurprisingly these occupied the very lowest levels of accommodation. Ironically, slaves were the main reason that the Roman government could generate such immense wealth and build such lavish dwellings for the wealthy minorities, as well as the aqueducts, the enormous palaces, amphitheatres, public and government buildings.

The Roman domestic dwelling of the wealthier citizens typically consisted of several courts or atria, some of which were surrounded by colonnades and called peristyles. Rooms were arranged around the open atrium with an impluvium (a pool to collect rainwater), and consisted of a dining room, kitchen, parlour, main room, guest or entertaining room. Garden areas and tile covered wooden verandas or arcades called loggia were also present wherever space permitted.

The front portion was reserved for shops, or faced the street with a blank wall, and all the rooms and chambers opened into the interior courts, which provided the only source of natural light to rooms. Lamps made of clay, glass, or bronze and fuelled with olive oil lighted up the rooms by night. The invention of glass blowing techniques made mass produced lamps relatively cheap and available to the many more less wealthy citizens, positively impacting on their quality of life.

The general plan of these houses seems to have been of Greek origin, as well as the way the interiors were decorated. Windows were uncommon in Roman dwellings and comprised small shuttered openings when present. Therefore, large areas of blank walls enclosed the rooms and were elaborately decorated to create an increased sense of space. Frescoes, tiled mosaics, and trompe l’oeils in brilliant colours displaying dramatic depictions, architectural details, or natural scenery, covered the walls and were often executed with considerable artistic skill. Colours were of earth pigments readily available, especially a bright vermillion known later as Etruscan red, and the most vivid colours were used whenever possible. Floors were usually covered in tiled mosaic patterns of mythological scenes or geometric patterns, and led to the development of tessellated mosaic techniques. Furniture was largely influenced by Greek designs, like the klismos chair, but were built more sturdily and with greater ornamental detail. Beds could have been made of bronze with woven wool mattresses, and could have also served as seating, especially as the Romans liked to eat in a reclining position. Lavish draperies would have been present in only the most affluent households and were used as an ostentatious display of wealth and status. These houses were constructed with wooden ceilings and roofs instead of vaulting, and were kept to one story due to the ever present threat of earthquakes.

The Roman villa was in reality a country palace, sited with consideration of the prevailing winds, exposure to the sun and shade, and the enjoyment of a wide vista. The main living accommodation was built around interior courts or peristyles, and often incorporated baths, temples, exedræ, theatres, tennis-courts, sun-rooms, and shaded porticoes. Statues, fountains, and colossal vases of marble adorned the grounds, which were laid out in terraces and were designed and tended to by landscape gardeners.

The Roman palace displayed the usual ostentation and luxurious finery associated with the ruling class, and comprised a complex mix of dwelling-rooms, courts, libraries, baths, gardens, peristyles, fountains, terraces, and covered passages, which were lavishly adorned with precious marbles, mosaics, columns, and statues. It comprised a temple, mausoleum, basilica, and other structures besides those portions devoted to the purposes of a royal residence.

This effort to control the population led to many crowd appeasing provisions at the behest of the state to be initiated. Buildings were constructed to entertain, govern, and facilitate activity of the citizens in an attempt by the emperor to win their compliance and minimize social unrest throughout their reign. Perhaps the greatest building produced by the Roman empire, the Flavian Amphitheatre or Colosseum, was an attempt by Vespasian to provide entertainment and a quelling distraction for the population while tending to his own ego. Vespasian died before the structure was complete and it became the responsibility of his son and heir Titus to complete the immense project, which he continued in an air of growing social disquiet. After the catastrophes of the volcanic destruction of Pompeii, and the fire that destroyed large areas of Rome occurring within a year of each other during Titus’s reign, the population accused the emperor of having fallen foul of the Gods and held him responsible for their misfortunes. Titus, realizing this and that his days were numbered ordered that all available resources were ploughed into the construction of the Colosseum in order to get the building completed and operational as soon as possible. Immediately upon completion, Titus ordered one hundred days of games to be held to appease and distract the restless citizens and win their approval. Chariot racing, gladiators, animal fighting, and even “sea battles” where the amphitheatre was flooded with water, feasting, festivities, gifts and prizes being showered on the citizens, led the games to be widely regarded as a great success. Needless to say the popularity of Titus soared, and in the eyes of the citizens his reign was assured.

Public bath houses were built to help deal with the lack of running water, heating, bathing and washing facilities in most Roman dwellings, and these became social centres where citizens could meet, exercise, and do business with one another, although men and women had separate bathing facilities or hours of attendance. These buildings comprised many rooms of varying sizes and were enclosed in structures of large vaulted construction, which allowed natural daylight to illuminate the interior space, and accommodate the vents and ducting that channelled the steam and heat from the furnaces. These facilities were provided free of charge for use by Roman citizens, although they were encouraged in the interest of public spiritedness to perform their municipal duties and make contributions toward the upkeep and running costs.

The Roman empire expanded over vast areas, each with their own customs, climate, and natural resources, and consequently cultures, housing, food, clothing, leisure activities varied greatly over the different regions. It was through invading and conquering different cultures that enabled the Roman empire to accumulate such immense wealth and power, however the vast majority did not share in the spoils that were accumulated. Furniture and interior comforts were a luxury afforded to the wealthy, while life for the majority, even if not a slave, was spent largely with making ends meet. As a result, the wealthy and ruling classes took full use of the disadvantaged and enslaved, setting them to work on building vast buildings and structures for relatively little expense to themselves, enabling bigger, higher, more elaborate feats of engineering and architecture to be achieved, and all for the benefit and glory of Rome.

Resources:

Hamlin, A.D.F.; A History of Architecture, 1909

Vitruvius; Ten Books on Architecture

Ruskin, John; Seven Lamps of Architecture, 1849

Headley, Gwyn; An Architectural Vocabulary

NEXT IN SERIES: PART 2 - Medieval and Gothic

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